CHAPTER 1 SECTION I GENERAL INFORMATION
FIGURE 1-1 NONDESTRUCTIVE INSPECTION FACILITY
Notes For Floor Plan
Electrical and Mechanical
SECTION II PERSONNEL TRAINING / QUALIFICATION / CERTIFICATION
Figure 1-2. Example of AF Form 1098
SECTION III REPORTING NEW OR IMPROVED NDI TECHNIQUES
Responsibilities - TM-1-1500-335-23_34
Table 1-1. NDI Method Codes
Table 1-2. Major Command Codes
Block 12 Part Preparation
Figure 1-3. AFTO Form 242 (Sheet 1 of 2)
Figure 1-3. AFTO Form 242 (Sheet 2 of 2)
SECTION IV PROCESS CONTROL OF ALL NDI METHODS
Responsibilities - TM-1-1500-335-23_41
Table 1-3. Frequency for Process Control
Table 1-3. Frequency for Process Control - Continued
Figure 1-4. AF Form 3130 Sample Format for Fluorescent Penetrant Method Process Control
Figure 1-5 AF Form 3130 Sample Format for Magnetic Particle Method Process Control
SECTION V PT PROCESS CONTROL
Causes of Materials Degradation
Frequency of Process Control Checks
Materials Control
Hydrophilic Remover (Pre-RINSE).
Drying
Dip and Pour
Inspection Booth
Cleaning Precleaning
Postcleaning
Quality Conformance Testing
Unsatisfactory Materials
Figure 1-6. Illustration of Crack Depth in Chrome-Plated Panel
Storage of Panels
Testing Of Material in Use
Testing Lipophilic Emulsifier
Testing Hydrophilic Remover
Performance Check
Spray Solution
Testing Water Suspended Developer
Figure 1-7. Specific Gravity Hydrometer Readings for Two Water Suspended Developers
Testing Water Soluble Developer
Figure 1-8. Specific Gravity Hydrometer Readings versus Concentration for One Manufacturers Water Soluble Developers
SECTION VI MT PROCESS CONTROL
Evaporation Losses
Disposition for Nonconformance
Process Requirements
Post Cleaning
System Effectiveness Check
Table 1-4. Ring Specimen Indications
Quick Break Tester
Figure 1-9a. Establishing a Field Indicator Reference Standard
Figure 1-9b. Checking In-Use Field Indicators
SECTION VIII UT PROCESS CONTROL
Table 1-5. Reference Standard Metal Travel Tolerances.
Figure 1-10. ASTM Reference Blocks
Angle Beam Blocks
Figure 1-11. Angle Beam Block
Surface Wave Reference Standard
Horizontal Linearity of Instrument
Procedure for Determining General Sensitivity
Resolution of Inspection System
Back Surface Resolution
Figure 1-14. Use of IIW Block to Check Entry Surface Resolution
Figure 1-15. Straight Beam Distance Calibration with IIW Block
Figure 1-16. Straight Beam Distance with Miniature Angle Beam Block
Angle Beam Point of Incidence (Miniature Angle Beam Block)
Figure 1-19. Angle Determination with IIW Block
Figure 1-20. Angle Beam Distance Calibration with IIW Block
Figure 1-21. Angle Beam Distance Calibration with Miniature Angle Beam Block
Figure 1-22. Angle Determination with Miniature Angle Beam Block
Figure 1-24. Skew Angle Measurement
SECTION IX RT PROCESS CONTROL
Process Control in the Darkroom
Process Control in the Darkroom CONT. - TM-1-1500-335-23_101
Process Control in the Darkroom CONT. - TM-1-1500-335-23_102
Process Control in the Darkroom CONT. - TM-1-1500-335-23_103
CHAPTER 2 SECTION I INTRODUCTION TO LIQUID PENETRANT INSPECTION
Capabilities of Penetrant Inspection
Leak Detection
Figure 2-2. Typical Small Parts Inspection Units
Advantages and Capabilities of Liquid Penetrant Inspection
Limitations on Applications of Penetrant Inspection
Restricted Flaw Openings
Visible Penetrant
Postemulsifiable, Lipophilic Method
Table 2-1. Classification of Penetrant Materials Contained in ASM 2644
Penetrant System
Penetrant Removability
Sensitivity
Figure 2-4. Flow Chart for Water Washable Penetrant Process (Method A)
Figure 2-5. Flow Chart for Postemulsifiable, Lipophilic, Penetrant Process (Method B)
Figure 2-6. Flow Chart for Solvent Removable Penetrant Process (Method C)
Figure 2-7. Flow Chart for Postemulsifiable, Hydrophilic Penetrant Process (Method D)
SECTION III PRETESTING, CLEANING, PRECLEANING AND POSTCLEANING
Responsibility for Cleaning
Contaminants and Soils
Specific contaminants And Their Effects
Scale, Oxides, And Corrosion Products
Cleaning Processes
Steam cleaning
Paint Removal
Removal of Cleaning Process Residues
Table 2-3. Mechanical Working Processes
Method of Applying Spray Solvent
Removal of Inspection Residues
SECTION IV MECHANISM, PROPERTIES AND APPLICATION OF PENETRANT
Figure 2-8 The Contact Angle (q) Is the Angle Between the Liquid and Solid Surface and is a Measure of the Wetting Ability
Figure 2-9. The Rise or Depression of Liquid in a Capillary Tube Depends upon the Contact Angle
Penetrant Properties
Storage Temperature Stability
Water Tolerance
Figure 2-10. Indications Produced by Penetrants of Four Different Sensitivity Levels Using Dry Developer
Application of Penetrant
Air or Pressure Spray
Brush or Swab Application
Figure 2-11. Approximate Drying Times for Two Types of Nonaqueous Developers at Various Temperatures
High Temperature Limitations
Penetrant Viscosity
Figure 2-13. Comparison of Dwell Time versus Viscosity for Two Types of Penetrants
Cleanliness of the Discontinuity
Drain Dwell
Figure 2-14. Comparison of Adequate Dwell versus Insufficient Dwell on a Thermally Cracked Aluminum Block.
Factors Influencing Removability
Removal of Water Washable Penetrant, Method A
Advantages Of Water Washable Penetrant, Method A
Disadvantages Of Water Washable Penetrant, Method A
Factors Influencing Effectiveness of Spray Rinse
Recommended Procedure
Figure 2-18. Diffusion of Emulsifier into Penetrant during the Lipophilic Emulsifier Dwell
Application of Emulsifier
Figure 2-19. Results of Insufficient, Optimum and Excessive Lipophilic Emulsifier Dwell Time
Emulsifier Types
Figure 2-20. Action of the Hydrophilic Process
Application of Remover
Water Rinse
Figure 2-21. The Effects of Optimum, Insufficient, and Excessive Hydrophilic Removal
Removal of Penetrants with Solvent, Method C
SECTION VI DEVELOPERS
Figure 2-22. The Effects of a Developer
Time Temperature Effects
Dry Developer.
Water Suspended (Wet-Aqueous) Developer
Figure 2-24. Cracked Aluminum Panel Comparing Results with an Optimum Thickness Layer (Top) to an Excessive Layer (Bottom) of Developer
Application
Nonaqueous Solvent Suspended Developers.
Disadvantages
Maximum Dwell Time
Table 2-5. Developer Forms and Application Methods in Decreasing Order of Sensitivity
SECTION VII INSPECTION AND INTERPRETATION
Figure 2-26. Electromagnetic Spectrum Shows the Relatively Narrow Band of Black Light
Figure 2-27. Relative Response of Typical Human Eye to Visible Light of Various Wavelengths
Incandescent and Carbon Arc Systems
Figure 2-28. Portable 100-Watt Black Light
Black Light Fixtures
Table 2-6. Empirical Black Light Intensity Requirements at Various Ambient Light Levels
Figure 2-31. Examples of Digital Radiometers
Black Light Hazards
Ambient Visible Light
Inspection, Interpretation and Evaluation
Round or Dot Indications
Inclusions
Fatigue Cracks
Figure 2-34. Micrograph of a Cross-Section through a Stress Corrosion Crack
Evaluation of Indications
Table 2-7. Typical Photographic Exposure Settings for Fluorescent Indications (Film Speed: ASA 64; Filter: Wratten 2B)
Instant Cameras
SECTION VIII SPECIAL PURPOSE MATERIAL
Lox Compatible Penetrant Types
High Temperature Penetrant Materials
Plastic Film Developers
CHAPTER 3 SECTION I INTRODUCTION TO MAGNETIC PARTICLE INSPECTION
Basic Terminology
Magnetic Field Characteristics
Figure 3-3. Horseshoe Magnet Fused into a Ring
Figure 3-5. Horseshoe Magnet Straightened to Form a Bar Magnet
Electricity and Magnetism
Figure 3-9. Magnetic Field in Part used as a Conductor
Figure 3-12. Using a Central Conductor to Circularly Magnetize Ring-Like Parts
Figure 3-14b. Longitudinal Field produced by the Coil Generates an Indication of Crack in Part
Alternating Current (AC) - TM-1-1500-335-23_207
Figure 3-16. Hysteresis Curve for a Ferromagnetic Material
Figure 3-17. Flux Waveform During Demagnetization, Projected from the Hysteresis Loop
Limitations of Demagnetization
Portable Equipment
Figure 3-18. Electromagnetic Probe or Yoke
Figure 3-19. Magnetization with a Permanent Magnet
Multidirectional Magnetization
SECTION II PRE- AND POST-MPI CLEANING & PRE-MPI DISASSEMBLY
Considerations when using The Dry Powder MPI Technique
Considerations when using The Wet Suspension MPI Technique
Requirements Following Post Inspection Cleaning
SECTION III MAGNETIC PARTICLE INSPECTION TECHNIQUES
Alternating Current (AC) - TM-1-1500-335-23_220
Comparison Of Results Using Different Types Of Current
Figure 3-22. Drawing of a Tool Steel Ring Specimen (Ketos Ring) with Artificial Sub-Surface Defects
Water Suspensions
Magnetic Writing - TM-1-1500-335-23_224
Continuous Technique
Magnetic Field
Figure 3-23. Hall-Effect Sensors
Disadvantages of the QQI
Circular Magnetization
Direct Contact (Head Shot) Technique
Direct Contact
Longitudinal Magnetization
Electromagnet Technique
Table 3-1. Coil Size vs. Maximum Diameter for Parts Magnetized in Bottom of Coil
Table 3-2. Typical Coil-Shot Current for a Five-Turn Coil with Part in Bottom of Coil
Formula for Cable Wrap or High Fill-Factor Coils
Figure 3-26. Calculating Effective Diameter
Table 3-3. Comparison of Coil Amperages for Solid vs. Hollow Parts
Table 3-4. Relative Permeabilities for Some Ferromagnetic Materials
Stationary Equipment
Figure 3-27. Stationary Wet Magnetic Particle Inspection Unit
Figure 3-28. AC/HWDC Portable Power Pack
Technique
Selection of Current Level
Selection of Current Level CONT.
SECTION IV PORTABLE MPI TECHNIQUES
Figure 3-30. Leg Positions of Articulated Leg Yoke (Sheet 1 of 3)
Figure 3-30. Leg Positions of Articulated Leg Yoke (Sheet 2 of 3)
Pulsed Direct Current
Figure 3-31. Field Inspection of Nose Wheel Strut
Particle Properties and Their Effects
Advantages of an Agglomeration of Fine Particles
Density - TM-1-1500-335-23_253
Wet Method Materials
Dry Versus Wet
Table 3-5. Requirements for Magnetic Particle Wet Method Oil Vehicle (DOD-F-87395)
Continuous Method
Advantages and Limitations
Applying the Powder
Figure 3-32. Squeeze Bottle Applicator
Current / Particle Application Technique
Wet Visible Particles
Black Powder Concentrate
Suspension Preparation - TM-1-1500-335-23_264
Particle Concentration
Suspension Maintenance
Figure 3-33. Filling Centrifuge Tube from Hose
Preparation of Part Surface
Wet Fluorescent Method
Suspension Preparation - TM-1-1500-335-23_270
Determination of Vehicle Fluorescence
Figure 3-34. Drawing Fine Magnetic Particles from Vehicle with Horseshoe Magnet
SECTION VI DEMAGNITIZATION
Figure 3-35. Hysteresis Loops Produced During Demagnetization
Situations Not Requiring Demagnetization
Methods.
Equipment and Procedures
Direct Contact Demagnetization
Hand Probe or Yoke
Special Techniques
Removal of Longitudinal and Circular Fields
Field Indicator
Compass Indicator
SECTION VII DISCONTINUITIES AND THEIR MPI INDICATIONS
Ingot Production
FIGURE 3-41 SEQUENCE OF STEEL PROCESSING STAGES, INDICATING THE PRINCIPLE OPERATION AND THE DEFECTS MOST LIKELY TO BE FOUND IN THE MATERIAL AFTER EACH PROCESS
Definition of Terms
Figure 3-43. Broad Indication of Subsurface Discontinuity in a Weld
Magnetic Discontinuities
Figure 3-46. Magnetic Particle Indication at the Weld between a Soft and a Hard Steel Rod
Figure 3-48. Magnetic Particle Indications of Segregations
Figure 3-49. Cross-Section of Ingot Showing Shrink Cavity
Figure 3-50. Magnetic Particle Indication of a Sub-Surface Stringer of Non-Metallic Inclusions
Primary Processing Discontinuities
Figure 3-53. Magnetic Particle Indication of a Seam on a Bar
Figure 3-55. Section through Severe Cupping in a 1 3/8-Inch Bar
Figure 3-57. Magnetic Particle Indications of Flakes in a Bore of a Large Hollow Shaft
Figure 3-59. Surface of a Steel Billet Showing a Lap
Figure 3-61. Magnetic Particle Indication of Flash Line Tear in a Partially Machined Automotive Spindle Forging
Secondary Processing or Finishing Discontinuities
Figure 3-64. Fluorescent Magnetic Particle Indications of Typical Grinding Cracks
Figure 3-66. Magnetic Particle Indications of Plating Cracks
Figure 3-68. Fluorescent Magnetic Particle Indications of Cracks in Crankshaft of Small Aircraft Engine Damaged in Plane Accident
Magnetic Writing - TM-1-1500-335-23_305
High Temperature Exposure
Figure 3-72. External Leakage Field created by an Internal Keyway
Figure 3-73. Non-Relevant Indications of Shaft Caused by Internal Spline
Interpretation and Elimination of Non-Relevant Indications
Types Of Records
Alginate Impression Compound Method
Safety Precautions
Table 3-7. Magnetic Rubber Equipment
Figure 3-75. Preparation for Magnetic Rubber Inspection
Figure 3-76. Using Pole Pieces to Improve Magnetic Contact.
Table 3-9. Magnetic Field Strength and Duration Recommendations
Figure 3-77. Typical Use of Gaussmeter Probes
Table 3-10. Cure Times for Different Quantities of Catalyst.
Deaerating
Reinspect
Figure 3-78. Magnetic Rubber Replicas (Sheet 1 of 6)
Figure 3-78. Magnetic Rubber Replicas (Sheet 2 of 6)
Figure 3-78. Magnetic Rubber Replicas (Sheet 3 of 6)
Figure 3-78. Magnetic Rubber Replicas (Sheet 4 of 6)
Figure 3-78. Magnetic Rubber Replicas (Sheet 5 of 6)
Figure 3-78. Magnetic Rubber Replicas (Sheet 6 of 6)
Table 3-11. Magnetic Rubber Indication Codes
CHAPTER 4 SECTION I INTRODUCTION TO EDDY CURRENT INSPECTION
Table 4-1. Common Applications of Eddy Current Inspection
Geometry
Figure 4-2. Block Diagram of Eddy Current Inspection System.
SECTION II FACTORS EFFECTING EDDY CURRENTS
Table 4-2. Material Properties and Inspection Conditions Influencing Generation of Eddy Currents
Measurement of Conductivity
Table 4-3. Conductivitys of Some Commonly Used Engineering Materials
Figure 4-4. Relative Magnitude and Distribution of Eddy Currents in Good and Poor Conductors
Figure 4-5. Relative Magnitude and Distribution of Eddy Currents in Conductive Material of High and Low Permeabilities
Figure 4-7. Distortion of Eddy Current Flow at the Edge of a Part
Effects Of Inspection Conditions on Eddy Currents
Figure 4-10. Relative Intensity of Eddy Currents with Variations in Lift-Off
Intensity And distribution Of Eddy Currents
Depth of Penetration
Table 4-4. Effect of Changes in Test Variables on the Surface Intensity and Depth of Penetration of Eddy Currents
Figure 4-12. Simplified Bridge Circuit
Impedance
Self Inductance
Figure 4-14. Sinusoidal Variation of Alternating Current and Induced Voltage in a Coil
Figure 4-16. Vector Diagram Showing Relationship between Resistance, Reactance, and Impedance.
Figure 4-17. Diagram Showing Relationship of Voltage Drops across Coil Resistance and Coil Reactance
Figure 4-18. Vector Representation of Impedance
Figure 4-19. Vector Representation of an Impedance Change Due to Lift-Off
Figure 4-20. Impedance Diagram Illustrating Effects of Variable Conductivity
OFigure 4-21. Phase Angle Difference between Lift-Off and Conductivity
Figure 4-22. Impedance Diagram Showing the Effect of Lift-Off.
Thickness Variations
Figure 4-24. Effect of Temperature Increase
Figure 4-26. Deeper Surface Crack
Figure 4-28. Subsurface Crack
Figure 4-29. Deep Subsurface Crack
Impedance Plane Analysis
Operating Point
Figure 4-32. Effect of Material Variables on Magnitude of Alternating Current in Test Coil with Constant Scanning Speed
Figure 4-33. Illustration of the Effects of Different Filters on the Eddy Current Signal
SECTION IV TEST SYSTEMS AND SUBSYSTEMS
Figure 4-34. Basic Coil Configurations
Figure 4-35. Typical Eddy Current Test Probes
Figure 4-36. Single and Double Test Coil Configurations Encircling Coils
Probe Design Considerations
Ruggedness
Figure 4-37. Basic Bridge Circuit
Phase Detection
Table 4-5. Eddy Current Instruments Applications, Features and Limitations
Figure 4-39. Hocking Locator UH-B Eddy Current Instrument
Figure 4-40. ZETEC MIZ-22 Eddy Current Instrument
Digital Display
Sensitivity And Reliability Of Crack Detection
Probe Housings
Probe Types
Influence Of Frequency On Noise
Figure 4-42. Decrease in Crack Response with Increasing Lift-Off
Figure 4-43. Phase Relationship Between Lift-Off and Crack Response for Various Materials and Frequencies
Figure 4-44. Lift-Off Resulting from Probe Wobble
Figure 4-45. Edge Probe Guide
Detection of Cracks Under Metallic Coatings
Automatic or Semi Automatic Equipment
Figure 4-47. Air Force General Purpose Eddy Current Standard
Figure 4-48. Air Force General Purpose Eddy Current Standard
FIGURE 4-49 AIR FORCE GENERAL PURPOSE EDDV CURRENT STANDARD
Figure 4-50. Navy Eddy Current Reference Standard
Cracks As Reference Standards
Drilled Holes
Table 4-6. Eddy Current Reference Standards for Cracks
Metal Smearing
Impedance Plane Analysis Instruments
Lift Off Compensation
Scan Pattern
Inspection Requirements
Probe Selection
Uniform Etch
SECTION VII CONDUCTIVITY MEASUREMENT
Pure Metals
Annealing Effects On Mechanical Properties
Precipitation Hardening Effects On Conductivity
Table 4-7. Electrical Conductivity Ranges for Aluminum Alloys
Conductivity Of Aluminum Alloys
Magnetic Materials
Equipment For Magnetic Materials
Metal Thickness
Conductivity Reference Standards
Inspection Procedures
SECTION VIII THICKNESS MEASUREMENT
Table 4-8. Effects of Material and Inspection Variables on the Sensitivity and Range of Thickness Measurements
Total Thickness Limitations
Selection of Test System
Effects Of Material Properties on Plating Thickness Measurements
Plating Thickness Reference Standards
Impedance Effects of Nonconductive Coatings
SECTION IX ADVANCES IN ELECTROMAGNETIC TEST METHODS
Pulsed Eddy Current Testing
Application of Advanced Techniques
CHAPTER 5 SECTION I GENERAL ULTRASONIC PRINCIPLES
Figure 5-2. Coupling of Search Unit to Test Part for Transmission of Ultrasonic Energy
Immersion Inspection
Figure 5-4. Ultrasonic Reflection
Figure 5-6. Typical C-Scan Inspection and Presentation
Figure 5-7. Longitudinal and Shear Wave Modes
Figure 5-9. Distribution of Surface Wave Energy with Depth
Figure 5-10. Sound Beam Refraction
Figure 5-11. Relative Amplitude in Steel of Longitudinal, Shear and Surface Wave Modes with Changing Plastic Wedge Angle
Table 5-1. Trigonometric Sines of Angles
Table 5-2. Ultrasonic Properties of Materials
Frequency Bandwidth
Figure 5-12. Schematic Presentation of Sound Beam
Beamspread
Figure 5-15. Main Sound Beam and Side Lobe Energy
Test Part Variables
Figure 5-18. Convex Sound Entry Surface.
Figure 5-19. Example of Mode Conversion
Internal Structure
SECTION II ULTRASONIC EQUIPMENT AND MATERIALS
Figure 5-20. Typical Portable Ultrasonic Instruments
Figure 5-21. Time Base.
Figure 5-22. Relationship of CRT Sweep to Time Base
Figure 5-24. CRT Display Before Adjusting Sweep Delay
Pulser / Receiver Controls
Figure 5-27. Decibel-to-Amplitude-Ratio Conversion Chart
Figure 5-28. Reject Control
Flaw Gates
Figure 5-30. Angle Beam Contact Search Unit
Search Unit Shape and Size
Wear Faces
Collimators
Guidelines for Use of Curved Wedges and Shoes
Figure 5-37. Use of a Coupling Fixture to Hold Search Unit on Shoe
Table 5-3. Incident Angles in Plastic for Refracted Shear Wave Angles in Test Materials
Table 5-3 Continued
Figure 5-39. Typical Curved Surface
Figure 5-42. Generation of Unwanted Longitudinal and Surface Waves on Curved Surface
Figure 5-43. Example of Determining the Sound Beam Path in a Test Part with a Curved Surface
Figure 5-44. Straight Beam Inspection of Test Part with Curved Surface
Table 5-4. Couplant Materials for Contact Inspection
Figure 5-45. Inspection of Test Part Opposite Sides to Provide Coverage of Dead Zone Areas
Figure 5-46. Through-Transmission Inspection
Figure 5-47. Angle Beam Inspection
Figure 5-48. Surface Wave Inspection
Figure 5-50. Correct and Incorrect Search Unit Orientation for Finding Cracks with Surface Waves
Figure 5-51. Typical Straight Beam DAC Curve
Figure 5-52. Search Unit Positions on IIW Block for Angle Beam DAC.
Straight Beam Inspection of A Two- Inch Plate
Figure 5-55. ASTM Block and Test Part Back Surface Signals
Angle Beam Inspection for A Skin Crack
Straight Beam Technique of Transfer Applied to Angel Beam Inspection
Figure 5-58. Transfer Limits
Orientation
Figure 5-59. Example of Multiple Indications and Decrease in Multiple Back Reflections Caused by Large Grain Size or Porosity
Figure 5-60. Effect of Delaminations in a Plate on Multiple Back Surface Signals
Figure 5-61. Irrelevant Surface Wave Signals
Figure 5-63. Angle Beam Technique for Locating Discontinuities at Boundaries
Loose Transducer Element
Figure 5-65. Double Shield for Reducing External Noise Signals.
Defining the Technique
SECTION IV ULTRASONIC INSPECTION OF BONDED STRUCTURES
Special Requirements
Fabrication of Reference Standards
Figure 5-67. Bonded Structure Configurations and Suggested Inspection Coverages
Table 5-5. Ultrasonic Inspection Methods for Bonded Structures
Table 5-6. Ultrasonic Inspection Methods for Bonded Structures
Figure 5-68. Through-Transmission Method
Figure 5-69. Typical Through-Transmission Inspection of a Stabilator
Figure 5-70. Procedure for Through-Transmission Inspection of a Stabilator (Sheet 1 of 2)
Figure 5-70. Procedure for Through-Transmission Inspection of a Stabilator (Sheet 2 of 2).
Figure 5-71. Pulse-Echo Method
Figure 5-72. Mapping of Unbonds, Pulse-Echo Method
Ringing Method
Figure 5-74. Damping Method
Methods Associated With Instruments Dedicated to Bond Inspection
Figure 5-77. Pitch/Catch Probe Positions for Mapping Unbonds
Figure 5-78. Pitch/Catch Swept-Frequency Signal Patterns
Figure 5-79. Mechanical Impedance Analysis Display
SECTION V ULTRASONIC THICKNESS MEASUREMENT
Equipment and Materials
Table 5-7. Measurement Error Introduced by Surface Roughness of Reference Standard or Test Part
Test Part Preparation
SECTION VI ULTRASONIC LEAK TESTING
Figure 5-81. Leak Testing
TESTING FOR EXTERNAL GAS LEAKAGE WITH THE STANDARD PROBE
Testing For Internal Leaks with Contact Probe
CHAPTER 6 SECTION I RADIOGRAPHIC INSPECTION
Properties of X-Rays and Gamma Rays
Differential Absorption in Matter.
Figure 6-3. Effect of Change in Thickness of Cracks
Exposure of Film
SECTION II X-RAY GENERATORS
Basic Requirements for Production of X-Rays.
Impingement of Electrons on a Target
Effects Of Voltage and Amperage on X-Ray Production
X-Ray Generators
Anode
Cooling Requirements
Intensity Distribution of an X-Ray Beam
Beam coverage
Table 6-1. Exposure-Time Correction Factors for Different Source Film Distances
Table 6-2. Appropriate Radiation Energies for Radiography of Steel.
Choice Of Focal Spot Size
Considerations When Operating X-Ray Equipment
SECTION III ISOTOPE RADIATION SOURCES
SECTION IV RADIOGRAPHIC FILM
Figure 6-11. Sketch of Cross Section of X-Ray Film
Development
Figure 6-12. Relationship between Signal-to-Noise Ratios and Speeds of Film
Table 6-3. Film Classes
Figure 6-13. Microdensitometer Tracings of Images of DIN Wire Penetrameters
Table 6-5. Relative Speeds of X-ray Films Exposed at 100 kVp
Table 6-6. Relationship of Light-Transmission to Film Density.
Table 6-8. Four-Place Logarithms to the Base 10
Table 6-9. Antilogarithms
Characteristic Curve
Figure 6-14. Typical Characteristic Curve
Storage of Unexposed Film
Film Identification
Labeling Of Film Holders
Prepackaged Film.
Table 6-11. Sample Result
SECTION V INTERACTION OF RADIATION WITH MATERIAL
Figure 6-15. Illustration of Various Radiation Absorption Interactions
Figure 6-16. Absorption Coefficients for Different Modes of Absorption in Iron.
Figure 6-17. Absorption Curves of Monochromatic and Multi-Energy Radiation
Scatter Radiation
SECTION VI SPECIAL RADIOGRAPHIC TECHNIQUES
Multiple Film Techniques
Figure 6-18. Triangulation Technique Used to Determine Flaw Depth in an Object
Thickness Measurement
Figure 6-19. Sketch Showing Procedure for Making and Viewing Stereo Radiographs
Special Imaging Methods
Figure 6-20. Typical Image Intensifier Tube
Polaroid Radiograph
Neutron Radiography
Figure 6-22. Radiographs of Honeycomb Showing Effect of Kilovoltage on Contrast
Table 6-12. Approximate Radiation Energies Compatible with Various Absorbers
Figure 6-23. Possible Geometric Distortions.
Figure 6-24. Nomogram to Assist in Solving Equation U g = Ft/d
Film Placement
Figure 6-25. Preferred Geometry for Radiography of Curved Surfaces
Figure 6-26. Inverse Square Law Diagram
Source/Defect Orientation
Figure 6-27. Density Changes Due to Varying Crack Widths and Intersection Angles
Table 6-13. Correlation between Beam Divergence and Crack Detectability
Figure 6-28. Sources of Scatter Radiation
Figure 6-29. Masking to Avoid Scatter
Figure 6-30. Effect of Development Time upon Film Speed, Contrast and Fogging
Figure 6-31. Penetrameter Information
Detail Sensitivity
Table 6-15. Relative Absorption of Materials
Figure 6-32. Radiation Transmission versus Thickness of Aluminum at 150 kVp
Figure 6-33. Radiation Transmission versus Thickness for Various Densities at 150 kVp
Film Latitude
Step Wedge Radiographs
Figure 6-35. Sketch of Desirable Stepped Block for Radiation Measurements
Figure 6-36. Typical Technique Constant-Density Chart
Figure 6-37. Scale for Determining Logarithms
Industrial Radiographic Film Characteristics.
Table 6-16. Developing Time versus Temperature
Stop Bath Solution
Washing
Table 6-17. Manual Washing of Radiographic Film
Cleanliness
Figure 6-38. Suggested Arrangement of Manual Film Processing Tank
Figure 6-39. Manual Film Processing
Developer Aging
Stop Bath Acidity
Figure 6-40. Typical Arrangement of Through-the-Wall Automatic Processing Darkroom
Silver Recovery
Film Artifacts
Table 6-18. Description of Film Artifacts
Table 6-18. Description of Film Artifacts - Continued - TM-1-1500-335-23_595
Table 6-18. Description of Film Artifacts - Continued - TM-1-1500-335-23_596
SECTION VIII RADIOGRAPHIC INTERPETATION
Figure 6-41. Pinhole Picture of Focal Spot
Figure 6-42. Geometrical Factors
Density - TM-1-1500-335-23_601
Contrast
Figure 6-43. Dark Adaptation Diagram.
Table 6-20. Visual Size versus Physical Size
Figure 6-44. Typical High Intensity Viewer
Typical Radiographic Discontinuities.
Castings
Casting Defects.
Cold shuts
Welding Defects and Conditions
Lack Of Root Penetration
Figure 6-45. Radiographic Examples of Welds (Sheet 1 of 2)
Figure 6-45. Radiographic Examples of Welds (Sheet 2 of 2)
Service Inspection
Water In Honeycomb
SECTION IX RADIATION PROTECTION
Responsibilities (Air Force/Navy)
Responsibilities (Army)
Commander.
Radiation Control Committee (RCC)
Radiography Supervisor
Qualifications of Industrial Radiographers
Initial Training
Air Force
Documentation
Possession and Use of Gamma Ray Sources.
Radiation Safety Monitors
Radiation Protection Surveys
Unshielded Installations
Report of Radiation Protection Survey
Exposure to Radiation
Dose Limit for Minors
Measuring Exposures Rates: Ionization Chamber Type Survey Instruments
Table 6-22. RECOMMENDED INSTRUMENTS FOR SURVEYS AND THEIR RELATIVE ENERGY RESPONSE
Recommended New Instruments
Recommended Instruments for Use in RF Fields
Personnel Monitoring Devices
Refer to Personnel Monitoring, paragraph 6.9.13. for personnel monitoring requirements
Each personal alarming dosimeter/alarm rate-meter must
Personnel Monitoring Requirements
Storage of Monitoring Devices
Figure 6-46. AFTO Form 125
Suspected Overexposure of Ionizing Radiation
(Army) External Potential Overexposure Criteria and Investigations
Table 6-23. Investigation Levels(Extract of Table 2-l, DA PAM 40-18*)
Table 6-24. Dosimeter Results That Require Notification of OTSG (Extract of Table 4-l, DA Pam 40-18)
(Army) Administrative Assessment of Dose
Sperry 300-KVP Unit
Very High Radiation Areas
Exposure Limits
Operating Procedures - TM-1-1500-335-23_652
Enclosed Installations (Air Force: N/A)
Requirements - TM-1-1500-335-23_654
Operating Instructions
Unshielded (Open) Installations
Requirements - TM-1-1500-335-23_657
Operating Procedures - TM-1-1500-335-23_658
Table 6-25. Maximum Permissible Dose Rate Versus Hourly Duty Cycle
Operations.
Design or Modification of Installations
Table 6-27. Occupancy Factors (T)
Table 6-28. Peak Voltage (kVp)
Shielding Of Openings in Protective Barriers
General Requirements for Doors into Protected Areas
GLOSSARY - TM-1-1500-335-23_666
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FIGURE 1-1 NONDESTRUCTIVE INSPECTION FACILITY
Notes For Floor Plan
Electrical and Mechanical
SECTION II PERSONNEL TRAINING / QUALIFICATION / CERTIFICATION
Figure 1-2. Example of AF Form 1098
SECTION III REPORTING NEW OR IMPROVED NDI TECHNIQUES
Responsibilities - TM-1-1500-335-23_34
Table 1-1. NDI Method Codes
Table 1-2. Major Command Codes
Block 12 Part Preparation
Figure 1-3. AFTO Form 242 (Sheet 1 of 2)
Figure 1-3. AFTO Form 242 (Sheet 2 of 2)
SECTION IV PROCESS CONTROL OF ALL NDI METHODS
Responsibilities - TM-1-1500-335-23_41
Table 1-3. Frequency for Process Control
Table 1-3. Frequency for Process Control - Continued
Figure 1-4. AF Form 3130 Sample Format for Fluorescent Penetrant Method Process Control
Figure 1-5 AF Form 3130 Sample Format for Magnetic Particle Method Process Control
SECTION V PT PROCESS CONTROL
Causes of Materials Degradation
Frequency of Process Control Checks
Materials Control
Hydrophilic Remover (Pre-RINSE).
Drying
Dip and Pour
Inspection Booth
Cleaning Precleaning
Postcleaning
Quality Conformance Testing
Unsatisfactory Materials
Figure 1-6. Illustration of Crack Depth in Chrome-Plated Panel
Storage of Panels
Testing Of Material in Use
Testing Lipophilic Emulsifier
Testing Hydrophilic Remover
Performance Check
Spray Solution
Testing Water Suspended Developer
Figure 1-7. Specific Gravity Hydrometer Readings for Two Water Suspended Developers
Testing Water Soluble Developer
Figure 1-8. Specific Gravity Hydrometer Readings versus Concentration for One Manufacturers Water Soluble Developers
SECTION VI MT PROCESS CONTROL
Evaporation Losses
Disposition for Nonconformance
Process Requirements
Post Cleaning
System Effectiveness Check
Table 1-4. Ring Specimen Indications
Quick Break Tester
Figure 1-9a. Establishing a Field Indicator Reference Standard
Figure 1-9b. Checking In-Use Field Indicators
SECTION VIII UT PROCESS CONTROL
Table 1-5. Reference Standard Metal Travel Tolerances.
Figure 1-10. ASTM Reference Blocks
Angle Beam Blocks
Figure 1-11. Angle Beam Block
Surface Wave Reference Standard
Horizontal Linearity of Instrument
Procedure for Determining General Sensitivity
Resolution of Inspection System
Back Surface Resolution
Figure 1-14. Use of IIW Block to Check Entry Surface Resolution
Figure 1-15. Straight Beam Distance Calibration with IIW Block
Figure 1-16. Straight Beam Distance with Miniature Angle Beam Block
Angle Beam Point of Incidence (Miniature Angle Beam Block)
Figure 1-19. Angle Determination with IIW Block
Figure 1-20. Angle Beam Distance Calibration with IIW Block
Figure 1-21. Angle Beam Distance Calibration with Miniature Angle Beam Block
Figure 1-22. Angle Determination with Miniature Angle Beam Block
Figure 1-24. Skew Angle Measurement
SECTION IX RT PROCESS CONTROL
Process Control in the Darkroom
Process Control in the Darkroom CONT. - TM-1-1500-335-23_101
Process Control in the Darkroom CONT. - TM-1-1500-335-23_102
Process Control in the Darkroom CONT. - TM-1-1500-335-23_103
CHAPTER 2 SECTION I INTRODUCTION TO LIQUID PENETRANT INSPECTION
Capabilities of Penetrant Inspection
Leak Detection
Figure 2-2. Typical Small Parts Inspection Units
Advantages and Capabilities of Liquid Penetrant Inspection
Limitations on Applications of Penetrant Inspection
Restricted Flaw Openings
Visible Penetrant
Postemulsifiable, Lipophilic Method
Table 2-1. Classification of Penetrant Materials Contained in ASM 2644
Penetrant System
Penetrant Removability
Sensitivity
Figure 2-4. Flow Chart for Water Washable Penetrant Process (Method A)
Figure 2-5. Flow Chart for Postemulsifiable, Lipophilic, Penetrant Process (Method B)
Figure 2-6. Flow Chart for Solvent Removable Penetrant Process (Method C)
Figure 2-7. Flow Chart for Postemulsifiable, Hydrophilic Penetrant Process (Method D)
SECTION III PRETESTING, CLEANING, PRECLEANING AND POSTCLEANING
Responsibility for Cleaning
Contaminants and Soils
Specific contaminants And Their Effects
Scale, Oxides, And Corrosion Products
Cleaning Processes
Steam cleaning
Paint Removal
Removal of Cleaning Process Residues
Table 2-3. Mechanical Working Processes
Method of Applying Spray Solvent
Removal of Inspection Residues
SECTION IV MECHANISM, PROPERTIES AND APPLICATION OF PENETRANT
Figure 2-8 The Contact Angle (q) Is the Angle Between the Liquid and Solid Surface and is a Measure of the Wetting Ability
Figure 2-9. The Rise or Depression of Liquid in a Capillary Tube Depends upon the Contact Angle
Penetrant Properties
Storage Temperature Stability
Water Tolerance
Figure 2-10. Indications Produced by Penetrants of Four Different Sensitivity Levels Using Dry Developer
Application of Penetrant
Air or Pressure Spray
Brush or Swab Application
Figure 2-11. Approximate Drying Times for Two Types of Nonaqueous Developers at Various Temperatures
High Temperature Limitations
Penetrant Viscosity
Figure 2-13. Comparison of Dwell Time versus Viscosity for Two Types of Penetrants
Cleanliness of the Discontinuity
Drain Dwell
Figure 2-14. Comparison of Adequate Dwell versus Insufficient Dwell on a Thermally Cracked Aluminum Block.
Factors Influencing Removability
Removal of Water Washable Penetrant, Method A
Advantages Of Water Washable Penetrant, Method A
Disadvantages Of Water Washable Penetrant, Method A
Factors Influencing Effectiveness of Spray Rinse
Recommended Procedure
Figure 2-18. Diffusion of Emulsifier into Penetrant during the Lipophilic Emulsifier Dwell
Application of Emulsifier
Figure 2-19. Results of Insufficient, Optimum and Excessive Lipophilic Emulsifier Dwell Time
Emulsifier Types
Figure 2-20. Action of the Hydrophilic Process
Application of Remover
Water Rinse
Figure 2-21. The Effects of Optimum, Insufficient, and Excessive Hydrophilic Removal
Removal of Penetrants with Solvent, Method C
SECTION VI DEVELOPERS
Figure 2-22. The Effects of a Developer
Time Temperature Effects
Dry Developer.
Water Suspended (Wet-Aqueous) Developer
Figure 2-24. Cracked Aluminum Panel Comparing Results with an Optimum Thickness Layer (Top) to an Excessive Layer (Bottom) of Developer
Application
Nonaqueous Solvent Suspended Developers.
Disadvantages
Maximum Dwell Time
Table 2-5. Developer Forms and Application Methods in Decreasing Order of Sensitivity
SECTION VII INSPECTION AND INTERPRETATION
Figure 2-26. Electromagnetic Spectrum Shows the Relatively Narrow Band of Black Light
Figure 2-27. Relative Response of Typical Human Eye to Visible Light of Various Wavelengths
Incandescent and Carbon Arc Systems
Figure 2-28. Portable 100-Watt Black Light
Black Light Fixtures
Table 2-6. Empirical Black Light Intensity Requirements at Various Ambient Light Levels
Figure 2-31. Examples of Digital Radiometers
Black Light Hazards
Ambient Visible Light
Inspection, Interpretation and Evaluation
Round or Dot Indications
Inclusions
Fatigue Cracks
Figure 2-34. Micrograph of a Cross-Section through a Stress Corrosion Crack
Evaluation of Indications
Table 2-7. Typical Photographic Exposure Settings for Fluorescent Indications (Film Speed: ASA 64; Filter: Wratten 2B)
Instant Cameras
SECTION VIII SPECIAL PURPOSE MATERIAL
Lox Compatible Penetrant Types
High Temperature Penetrant Materials
Plastic Film Developers
CHAPTER 3 SECTION I INTRODUCTION TO MAGNETIC PARTICLE INSPECTION
Basic Terminology
Magnetic Field Characteristics
Figure 3-3. Horseshoe Magnet Fused into a Ring
Figure 3-5. Horseshoe Magnet Straightened to Form a Bar Magnet
Electricity and Magnetism
Figure 3-9. Magnetic Field in Part used as a Conductor
Figure 3-12. Using a Central Conductor to Circularly Magnetize Ring-Like Parts
Figure 3-14b. Longitudinal Field produced by the Coil Generates an Indication of Crack in Part
Alternating Current (AC) - TM-1-1500-335-23_207
Figure 3-16. Hysteresis Curve for a Ferromagnetic Material
Figure 3-17. Flux Waveform During Demagnetization, Projected from the Hysteresis Loop
Limitations of Demagnetization
Portable Equipment
Figure 3-18. Electromagnetic Probe or Yoke
Figure 3-19. Magnetization with a Permanent Magnet
Multidirectional Magnetization
SECTION II PRE- AND POST-MPI CLEANING & PRE-MPI DISASSEMBLY
Considerations when using The Dry Powder MPI Technique
Considerations when using The Wet Suspension MPI Technique
Requirements Following Post Inspection Cleaning
SECTION III MAGNETIC PARTICLE INSPECTION TECHNIQUES
Alternating Current (AC) - TM-1-1500-335-23_220
Comparison Of Results Using Different Types Of Current
Figure 3-22. Drawing of a Tool Steel Ring Specimen (Ketos Ring) with Artificial Sub-Surface Defects
Water Suspensions
Magnetic Writing - TM-1-1500-335-23_224
Continuous Technique
Magnetic Field
Figure 3-23. Hall-Effect Sensors
Disadvantages of the QQI
Circular Magnetization
Direct Contact (Head Shot) Technique
Direct Contact
Longitudinal Magnetization
Electromagnet Technique
Table 3-1. Coil Size vs. Maximum Diameter for Parts Magnetized in Bottom of Coil
Table 3-2. Typical Coil-Shot Current for a Five-Turn Coil with Part in Bottom of Coil
Formula for Cable Wrap or High Fill-Factor Coils
Figure 3-26. Calculating Effective Diameter
Table 3-3. Comparison of Coil Amperages for Solid vs. Hollow Parts
Table 3-4. Relative Permeabilities for Some Ferromagnetic Materials
Stationary Equipment
Figure 3-27. Stationary Wet Magnetic Particle Inspection Unit
Figure 3-28. AC/HWDC Portable Power Pack
Technique
Selection of Current Level
Selection of Current Level CONT.
SECTION IV PORTABLE MPI TECHNIQUES
Figure 3-30. Leg Positions of Articulated Leg Yoke (Sheet 1 of 3)
Figure 3-30. Leg Positions of Articulated Leg Yoke (Sheet 2 of 3)
Pulsed Direct Current
Figure 3-31. Field Inspection of Nose Wheel Strut
Particle Properties and Their Effects
Advantages of an Agglomeration of Fine Particles
Density - TM-1-1500-335-23_253
Wet Method Materials
Dry Versus Wet
Table 3-5. Requirements for Magnetic Particle Wet Method Oil Vehicle (DOD-F-87395)
Continuous Method
Advantages and Limitations
Applying the Powder
Figure 3-32. Squeeze Bottle Applicator
Current / Particle Application Technique
Wet Visible Particles
Black Powder Concentrate
Suspension Preparation - TM-1-1500-335-23_264
Particle Concentration
Suspension Maintenance
Figure 3-33. Filling Centrifuge Tube from Hose
Preparation of Part Surface
Wet Fluorescent Method
Suspension Preparation - TM-1-1500-335-23_270
Determination of Vehicle Fluorescence
Figure 3-34. Drawing Fine Magnetic Particles from Vehicle with Horseshoe Magnet
SECTION VI DEMAGNITIZATION
Figure 3-35. Hysteresis Loops Produced During Demagnetization
Situations Not Requiring Demagnetization
Methods.
Equipment and Procedures
Direct Contact Demagnetization
Hand Probe or Yoke
Special Techniques
Removal of Longitudinal and Circular Fields
Field Indicator
Compass Indicator
SECTION VII DISCONTINUITIES AND THEIR MPI INDICATIONS
Ingot Production
FIGURE 3-41 SEQUENCE OF STEEL PROCESSING STAGES, INDICATING THE PRINCIPLE OPERATION AND THE DEFECTS MOST LIKELY TO BE FOUND IN THE MATERIAL AFTER EACH PROCESS
Definition of Terms
Figure 3-43. Broad Indication of Subsurface Discontinuity in a Weld
Magnetic Discontinuities
Figure 3-46. Magnetic Particle Indication at the Weld between a Soft and a Hard Steel Rod
Figure 3-48. Magnetic Particle Indications of Segregations
Figure 3-49. Cross-Section of Ingot Showing Shrink Cavity
Figure 3-50. Magnetic Particle Indication of a Sub-Surface Stringer of Non-Metallic Inclusions
Primary Processing Discontinuities
Figure 3-53. Magnetic Particle Indication of a Seam on a Bar
Figure 3-55. Section through Severe Cupping in a 1 3/8-Inch Bar
Figure 3-57. Magnetic Particle Indications of Flakes in a Bore of a Large Hollow Shaft
Figure 3-59. Surface of a Steel Billet Showing a Lap
Figure 3-61. Magnetic Particle Indication of Flash Line Tear in a Partially Machined Automotive Spindle Forging
Secondary Processing or Finishing Discontinuities
Figure 3-64. Fluorescent Magnetic Particle Indications of Typical Grinding Cracks
Figure 3-66. Magnetic Particle Indications of Plating Cracks
Figure 3-68. Fluorescent Magnetic Particle Indications of Cracks in Crankshaft of Small Aircraft Engine Damaged in Plane Accident
Magnetic Writing - TM-1-1500-335-23_305
High Temperature Exposure
Figure 3-72. External Leakage Field created by an Internal Keyway
Figure 3-73. Non-Relevant Indications of Shaft Caused by Internal Spline
Interpretation and Elimination of Non-Relevant Indications
Types Of Records
Alginate Impression Compound Method
Safety Precautions
Table 3-7. Magnetic Rubber Equipment
Figure 3-75. Preparation for Magnetic Rubber Inspection
Figure 3-76. Using Pole Pieces to Improve Magnetic Contact.
Table 3-9. Magnetic Field Strength and Duration Recommendations
Figure 3-77. Typical Use of Gaussmeter Probes
Table 3-10. Cure Times for Different Quantities of Catalyst.
Deaerating
Reinspect
Figure 3-78. Magnetic Rubber Replicas (Sheet 1 of 6)
Figure 3-78. Magnetic Rubber Replicas (Sheet 2 of 6)
Figure 3-78. Magnetic Rubber Replicas (Sheet 3 of 6)
Figure 3-78. Magnetic Rubber Replicas (Sheet 4 of 6)
Figure 3-78. Magnetic Rubber Replicas (Sheet 5 of 6)
Figure 3-78. Magnetic Rubber Replicas (Sheet 6 of 6)
Table 3-11. Magnetic Rubber Indication Codes
CHAPTER 4 SECTION I INTRODUCTION TO EDDY CURRENT INSPECTION
Table 4-1. Common Applications of Eddy Current Inspection
Geometry
Figure 4-2. Block Diagram of Eddy Current Inspection System.
SECTION II FACTORS EFFECTING EDDY CURRENTS
Table 4-2. Material Properties and Inspection Conditions Influencing Generation of Eddy Currents
Measurement of Conductivity
Table 4-3. Conductivitys of Some Commonly Used Engineering Materials
Figure 4-4. Relative Magnitude and Distribution of Eddy Currents in Good and Poor Conductors
Figure 4-5. Relative Magnitude and Distribution of Eddy Currents in Conductive Material of High and Low Permeabilities
Figure 4-7. Distortion of Eddy Current Flow at the Edge of a Part
Effects Of Inspection Conditions on Eddy Currents
Figure 4-10. Relative Intensity of Eddy Currents with Variations in Lift-Off
Intensity And distribution Of Eddy Currents
Depth of Penetration
Table 4-4. Effect of Changes in Test Variables on the Surface Intensity and Depth of Penetration of Eddy Currents
Figure 4-12. Simplified Bridge Circuit
Impedance
Self Inductance
Figure 4-14. Sinusoidal Variation of Alternating Current and Induced Voltage in a Coil
Figure 4-16. Vector Diagram Showing Relationship between Resistance, Reactance, and Impedance.
Figure 4-17. Diagram Showing Relationship of Voltage Drops across Coil Resistance and Coil Reactance
Figure 4-18. Vector Representation of Impedance
Figure 4-19. Vector Representation of an Impedance Change Due to Lift-Off
Figure 4-20. Impedance Diagram Illustrating Effects of Variable Conductivity
OFigure 4-21. Phase Angle Difference between Lift-Off and Conductivity
Figure 4-22. Impedance Diagram Showing the Effect of Lift-Off.
Thickness Variations
Figure 4-24. Effect of Temperature Increase
Figure 4-26. Deeper Surface Crack
Figure 4-28. Subsurface Crack
Figure 4-29. Deep Subsurface Crack
Impedance Plane Analysis
Operating Point
Figure 4-32. Effect of Material Variables on Magnitude of Alternating Current in Test Coil with Constant Scanning Speed
Figure 4-33. Illustration of the Effects of Different Filters on the Eddy Current Signal
SECTION IV TEST SYSTEMS AND SUBSYSTEMS
Figure 4-34. Basic Coil Configurations
Figure 4-35. Typical Eddy Current Test Probes
Figure 4-36. Single and Double Test Coil Configurations Encircling Coils
Probe Design Considerations
Ruggedness
Figure 4-37. Basic Bridge Circuit
Phase Detection
Table 4-5. Eddy Current Instruments Applications, Features and Limitations
Figure 4-39. Hocking Locator UH-B Eddy Current Instrument
Figure 4-40. ZETEC MIZ-22 Eddy Current Instrument
Digital Display
Sensitivity And Reliability Of Crack Detection
Probe Housings
Probe Types
Influence Of Frequency On Noise
Figure 4-42. Decrease in Crack Response with Increasing Lift-Off
Figure 4-43. Phase Relationship Between Lift-Off and Crack Response for Various Materials and Frequencies
Figure 4-44. Lift-Off Resulting from Probe Wobble
Figure 4-45. Edge Probe Guide
Detection of Cracks Under Metallic Coatings
Automatic or Semi Automatic Equipment
Figure 4-47. Air Force General Purpose Eddy Current Standard
Figure 4-48. Air Force General Purpose Eddy Current Standard
FIGURE 4-49 AIR FORCE GENERAL PURPOSE EDDV CURRENT STANDARD
Figure 4-50. Navy Eddy Current Reference Standard
Cracks As Reference Standards
Drilled Holes
Table 4-6. Eddy Current Reference Standards for Cracks
Metal Smearing
Impedance Plane Analysis Instruments
Lift Off Compensation
Scan Pattern
Inspection Requirements
Probe Selection
Uniform Etch
SECTION VII CONDUCTIVITY MEASUREMENT
Pure Metals
Annealing Effects On Mechanical Properties
Precipitation Hardening Effects On Conductivity
Table 4-7. Electrical Conductivity Ranges for Aluminum Alloys
Conductivity Of Aluminum Alloys
Magnetic Materials
Equipment For Magnetic Materials
Metal Thickness
Conductivity Reference Standards
Inspection Procedures
SECTION VIII THICKNESS MEASUREMENT
Table 4-8. Effects of Material and Inspection Variables on the Sensitivity and Range of Thickness Measurements
Total Thickness Limitations
Selection of Test System
Effects Of Material Properties on Plating Thickness Measurements
Plating Thickness Reference Standards
Impedance Effects of Nonconductive Coatings
SECTION IX ADVANCES IN ELECTROMAGNETIC TEST METHODS
Pulsed Eddy Current Testing
Application of Advanced Techniques
CHAPTER 5 SECTION I GENERAL ULTRASONIC PRINCIPLES
Figure 5-2. Coupling of Search Unit to Test Part for Transmission of Ultrasonic Energy
Immersion Inspection
Figure 5-4. Ultrasonic Reflection
Figure 5-6. Typical C-Scan Inspection and Presentation
Figure 5-7. Longitudinal and Shear Wave Modes
Figure 5-9. Distribution of Surface Wave Energy with Depth
Figure 5-10. Sound Beam Refraction
Figure 5-11. Relative Amplitude in Steel of Longitudinal, Shear and Surface Wave Modes with Changing Plastic Wedge Angle
Table 5-1. Trigonometric Sines of Angles
Table 5-2. Ultrasonic Properties of Materials
Frequency Bandwidth
Figure 5-12. Schematic Presentation of Sound Beam
Beamspread
Figure 5-15. Main Sound Beam and Side Lobe Energy
Test Part Variables
Figure 5-18. Convex Sound Entry Surface.
Figure 5-19. Example of Mode Conversion
Internal Structure
SECTION II ULTRASONIC EQUIPMENT AND MATERIALS
Figure 5-20. Typical Portable Ultrasonic Instruments
Figure 5-21. Time Base.
Figure 5-22. Relationship of CRT Sweep to Time Base
Figure 5-24. CRT Display Before Adjusting Sweep Delay
Pulser / Receiver Controls
Figure 5-27. Decibel-to-Amplitude-Ratio Conversion Chart
Figure 5-28. Reject Control
Flaw Gates
Figure 5-30. Angle Beam Contact Search Unit
Search Unit Shape and Size
Wear Faces
Collimators
Guidelines for Use of Curved Wedges and Shoes
Figure 5-37. Use of a Coupling Fixture to Hold Search Unit on Shoe
Table 5-3. Incident Angles in Plastic for Refracted Shear Wave Angles in Test Materials
Table 5-3 Continued
Figure 5-39. Typical Curved Surface
Figure 5-42. Generation of Unwanted Longitudinal and Surface Waves on Curved Surface
Figure 5-43. Example of Determining the Sound Beam Path in a Test Part with a Curved Surface
Figure 5-44. Straight Beam Inspection of Test Part with Curved Surface
Table 5-4. Couplant Materials for Contact Inspection
Figure 5-45. Inspection of Test Part Opposite Sides to Provide Coverage of Dead Zone Areas
Figure 5-46. Through-Transmission Inspection
Figure 5-47. Angle Beam Inspection
Figure 5-48. Surface Wave Inspection
Figure 5-50. Correct and Incorrect Search Unit Orientation for Finding Cracks with Surface Waves
Figure 5-51. Typical Straight Beam DAC Curve
Figure 5-52. Search Unit Positions on IIW Block for Angle Beam DAC.
Straight Beam Inspection of A Two- Inch Plate
Figure 5-55. ASTM Block and Test Part Back Surface Signals
Angle Beam Inspection for A Skin Crack
Straight Beam Technique of Transfer Applied to Angel Beam Inspection
Figure 5-58. Transfer Limits
Orientation
Figure 5-59. Example of Multiple Indications and Decrease in Multiple Back Reflections Caused by Large Grain Size or Porosity
Figure 5-60. Effect of Delaminations in a Plate on Multiple Back Surface Signals
Figure 5-61. Irrelevant Surface Wave Signals
Figure 5-63. Angle Beam Technique for Locating Discontinuities at Boundaries
Loose Transducer Element
Figure 5-65. Double Shield for Reducing External Noise Signals.
Defining the Technique
SECTION IV ULTRASONIC INSPECTION OF BONDED STRUCTURES
Special Requirements
Fabrication of Reference Standards
Figure 5-67. Bonded Structure Configurations and Suggested Inspection Coverages
Table 5-5. Ultrasonic Inspection Methods for Bonded Structures
Table 5-6. Ultrasonic Inspection Methods for Bonded Structures
Figure 5-68. Through-Transmission Method
Figure 5-69. Typical Through-Transmission Inspection of a Stabilator
Figure 5-70. Procedure for Through-Transmission Inspection of a Stabilator (Sheet 1 of 2)
Figure 5-70. Procedure for Through-Transmission Inspection of a Stabilator (Sheet 2 of 2).
Figure 5-71. Pulse-Echo Method
Figure 5-72. Mapping of Unbonds, Pulse-Echo Method
Ringing Method
Figure 5-74. Damping Method
Methods Associated With Instruments Dedicated to Bond Inspection
Figure 5-77. Pitch/Catch Probe Positions for Mapping Unbonds
Figure 5-78. Pitch/Catch Swept-Frequency Signal Patterns
Figure 5-79. Mechanical Impedance Analysis Display
SECTION V ULTRASONIC THICKNESS MEASUREMENT
Equipment and Materials
Table 5-7. Measurement Error Introduced by Surface Roughness of Reference Standard or Test Part
Test Part Preparation
SECTION VI ULTRASONIC LEAK TESTING
Figure 5-81. Leak Testing
TESTING FOR EXTERNAL GAS LEAKAGE WITH THE STANDARD PROBE
Testing For Internal Leaks with Contact Probe
CHAPTER 6 SECTION I RADIOGRAPHIC INSPECTION
Properties of X-Rays and Gamma Rays
Differential Absorption in Matter.
Figure 6-3. Effect of Change in Thickness of Cracks
Exposure of Film
SECTION II X-RAY GENERATORS
Basic Requirements for Production of X-Rays.
Impingement of Electrons on a Target
Effects Of Voltage and Amperage on X-Ray Production
X-Ray Generators
Anode
Cooling Requirements
Intensity Distribution of an X-Ray Beam
Beam coverage
Table 6-1. Exposure-Time Correction Factors for Different Source Film Distances
Table 6-2. Appropriate Radiation Energies for Radiography of Steel.
Choice Of Focal Spot Size
Considerations When Operating X-Ray Equipment
SECTION III ISOTOPE RADIATION SOURCES
SECTION IV RADIOGRAPHIC FILM
Figure 6-11. Sketch of Cross Section of X-Ray Film
Development
Figure 6-12. Relationship between Signal-to-Noise Ratios and Speeds of Film
Table 6-3. Film Classes
Figure 6-13. Microdensitometer Tracings of Images of DIN Wire Penetrameters
Table 6-5. Relative Speeds of X-ray Films Exposed at 100 kVp
Table 6-6. Relationship of Light-Transmission to Film Density.
Table 6-8. Four-Place Logarithms to the Base 10
Table 6-9. Antilogarithms
Characteristic Curve
Figure 6-14. Typical Characteristic Curve
Storage of Unexposed Film
Film Identification
Labeling Of Film Holders
Prepackaged Film.
Table 6-11. Sample Result
SECTION V INTERACTION OF RADIATION WITH MATERIAL
Figure 6-15. Illustration of Various Radiation Absorption Interactions
Figure 6-16. Absorption Coefficients for Different Modes of Absorption in Iron.
Figure 6-17. Absorption Curves of Monochromatic and Multi-Energy Radiation
Scatter Radiation
SECTION VI SPECIAL RADIOGRAPHIC TECHNIQUES
Multiple Film Techniques
Figure 6-18. Triangulation Technique Used to Determine Flaw Depth in an Object
Thickness Measurement
Figure 6-19. Sketch Showing Procedure for Making and Viewing Stereo Radiographs
Special Imaging Methods
Figure 6-20. Typical Image Intensifier Tube
Polaroid Radiograph
Neutron Radiography
Figure 6-22. Radiographs of Honeycomb Showing Effect of Kilovoltage on Contrast
Table 6-12. Approximate Radiation Energies Compatible with Various Absorbers
Figure 6-23. Possible Geometric Distortions.
Figure 6-24. Nomogram to Assist in Solving Equation U g = Ft/d
Film Placement
Figure 6-25. Preferred Geometry for Radiography of Curved Surfaces
Figure 6-26. Inverse Square Law Diagram
Source/Defect Orientation
Figure 6-27. Density Changes Due to Varying Crack Widths and Intersection Angles
Table 6-13. Correlation between Beam Divergence and Crack Detectability
Figure 6-28. Sources of Scatter Radiation
Figure 6-29. Masking to Avoid Scatter
Figure 6-30. Effect of Development Time upon Film Speed, Contrast and Fogging
Figure 6-31. Penetrameter Information
Detail Sensitivity
Table 6-15. Relative Absorption of Materials
Figure 6-32. Radiation Transmission versus Thickness of Aluminum at 150 kVp
Figure 6-33. Radiation Transmission versus Thickness for Various Densities at 150 kVp
Film Latitude
Step Wedge Radiographs
Figure 6-35. Sketch of Desirable Stepped Block for Radiation Measurements
Figure 6-36. Typical Technique Constant-Density Chart
Figure 6-37. Scale for Determining Logarithms
Industrial Radiographic Film Characteristics.
Table 6-16. Developing Time versus Temperature
Stop Bath Solution
Washing
Table 6-17. Manual Washing of Radiographic Film
Cleanliness
Figure 6-38. Suggested Arrangement of Manual Film Processing Tank
Figure 6-39. Manual Film Processing
Developer Aging
Stop Bath Acidity
Figure 6-40. Typical Arrangement of Through-the-Wall Automatic Processing Darkroom
Silver Recovery
Film Artifacts
Table 6-18. Description of Film Artifacts
Table 6-18. Description of Film Artifacts - Continued - TM-1-1500-335-23_595
Table 6-18. Description of Film Artifacts - Continued - TM-1-1500-335-23_596
SECTION VIII RADIOGRAPHIC INTERPETATION
Figure 6-41. Pinhole Picture of Focal Spot
Figure 6-42. Geometrical Factors
Density - TM-1-1500-335-23_601
Contrast
Figure 6-43. Dark Adaptation Diagram.
Table 6-20. Visual Size versus Physical Size
Figure 6-44. Typical High Intensity Viewer
Typical Radiographic Discontinuities.
Castings
Casting Defects.
Cold shuts
Welding Defects and Conditions
Lack Of Root Penetration
Figure 6-45. Radiographic Examples of Welds (Sheet 1 of 2)
Figure 6-45. Radiographic Examples of Welds (Sheet 2 of 2)
Service Inspection
Water In Honeycomb
SECTION IX RADIATION PROTECTION
Responsibilities (Air Force/Navy)
Responsibilities (Army)
Commander.
Radiation Control Committee (RCC)
Radiography Supervisor
Qualifications of Industrial Radiographers
Initial Training
Air Force
Documentation
Possession and Use of Gamma Ray Sources.
Radiation Safety Monitors
Radiation Protection Surveys
Unshielded Installations
Report of Radiation Protection Survey
Exposure to Radiation
Dose Limit for Minors
Measuring Exposures Rates: Ionization Chamber Type Survey Instruments
Table 6-22. RECOMMENDED INSTRUMENTS FOR SURVEYS AND THEIR RELATIVE ENERGY RESPONSE
Recommended New Instruments
Recommended Instruments for Use in RF Fields
Personnel Monitoring Devices
Refer to Personnel Monitoring, paragraph 6.9.13. for personnel monitoring requirements
Each personal alarming dosimeter/alarm rate-meter must
Personnel Monitoring Requirements
Storage of Monitoring Devices
Figure 6-46. AFTO Form 125
Suspected Overexposure of Ionizing Radiation
(Army) External Potential Overexposure Criteria and Investigations
Table 6-23. Investigation Levels(Extract of Table 2-l, DA PAM 40-18*)
Table 6-24. Dosimeter Results That Require Notification of OTSG (Extract of Table 4-l, DA Pam 40-18)
(Army) Administrative Assessment of Dose
Sperry 300-KVP Unit
Very High Radiation Areas
Exposure Limits
Operating Procedures - TM-1-1500-335-23_652
Enclosed Installations (Air Force: N/A)
Requirements - TM-1-1500-335-23_654
Operating Instructions
Unshielded (Open) Installations
Requirements - TM-1-1500-335-23_657
Operating Procedures - TM-1-1500-335-23_658
Table 6-25. Maximum Permissible Dose Rate Versus Hourly Duty Cycle
Operations.
Design or Modification of Installations
Table 6-27. Occupancy Factors (T)
Table 6-28. Peak Voltage (kVp)
Shielding Of Openings in Protective Barriers
General Requirements for Doors into Protected Areas
GLOSSARY - TM-1-1500-335-23_666
GLOSSARY CONT. - TM-1-1500-335-23_667
GLOSSARY CONT. - TM-1-1500-335-23_668
GLOSSARY CONT. - TM-1-1500-335-23_669
GLOSSARY CONT. - TM-1-1500-335-23_670
GLOSSARY CONT. - TM-1-1500-335-23_671
TM-1-1500-335-23_672
GLOSSARY CONT. - TM-1-1500-335-23_673
GLOSSARY CONT. - TM-1-1500-335-23_674
GLOSSARY CONT. - TM-1-1500-335-23_675
GLOSSARY CONT. - TM-1-1500-335-23_676
GLOSSARY CONT. - TM-1-1500-335-23_677
GLOSSARY CONT. - TM-1-1500-335-23_678
GLOSSARY CONT. - TM-1-1500-335-23_679
GLOSSARY CONT. - TM-1-1500-335-23_680
GLOSSARY CONT. - TM-1-1500-335-23_681
GLOSSARY CONT. - TM-1-1500-335-23_682
GLOSSARY CONT. - TM-1-1500-335-23_683
GLOSSARY CONT. - TM-1-1500-335-23_684
GLOSSARY CONT. - TM-1-1500-335-23_685
GLOSSARY CONT. - TM-1-1500-335-23_686
GLOSSARY CONT. - TM-1-1500-335-23_687
GLOSSARY CONT. - TM-1-1500-335-23_688
GLOSSARY CONT. - TM-1-1500-335-23_689
GLOSSARY CONT. - TM-1-1500-335-23_690
GLOSSARY CONT. - TM-1-1500-335-23_691
GLOSSARY CONT. - TM-1-1500-335-23_692
GLOSSARY CONT. - TM-1-1500-335-23_693
GLOSSARY CONT. - TM-1-1500-335-23_694
GLOSSARY CONT. - TM-1-1500-335-23_695
GLOSSARY CONT. - TM-1-1500-335-23_696
GLOSSARY CONT. - TM-1-1500-335-23_697
GLOSSARY CONT. - TM-1-1500-335-23_698
GLOSSARY CONT. - TM-1-1500-335-23_699
GLOSSARY CONT. - TM-1-1500-335-23_700
GLOSSARY CONT. - TM-1-1500-335-23_701
GLOSSARY CONT. - TM-1-1500-335-23_702
GLOSSARY CONT. - TM-1-1500-335-23_703
GLOSSARY CONT. - TM-1-1500-335-23_704
GLOSSARY CONT. - TM-1-1500-335-23_705
GLOSSARY CONT. - TM-1-1500-335-23_706
GLOSSARY CONT. - TM-1-1500-335-23_707
GLOSSARY CONT. - TM-1-1500-335-23_708
GLOSSARY CONT. - TM-1-1500-335-23_709
GLOSSARY CONT. - TM-1-1500-335-23_710
GLOSSARY CONT. - TM-1-1500-335-23_711
GLOSSARY CONT. - TM-1-1500-335-23_712
GLOSSARY CONT. - TM-1-1500-335-23_713
GLOSSARY CONT. - TM-1-1500-335-23_714
GLOSSARY CONT. - TM-1-1500-335-23_715
GLOSSARY CONT. - TM-1-1500-335-23_716
GLOSSARY CONT. - TM-1-1500-335-23_717
GLOSSARY CONT. - TM-1-1500-335-23_718
GLOSSARY CONT. - TM-1-1500-335-23_719
GLOSSARY CONT. - TM-1-1500-335-23_720
GLOSSARY CONT. - TM-1-1500-335-23_721
GLOSSARY CONT. - TM-1-1500-335-23_722
GLOSSARY CONT. - TM-1-1500-335-23_723
GLOSSARY CONT. - TM-1-1500-335-23_724
GLOSSARY CONT. - TM-1-1500-335-23_725
GLOSSARY CONT. - TM-1-1500-335-23_726
GLOSSARY CONT. - TM-1-1500-335-23_727
GLOSSARY CONT. - TM-1-1500-335-23_728
GLOSSARY CONT. - TM-1-1500-335-23_729
GLOSSARY CONT. - TM-1-1500-335-23_730
GLOSSARY CONT. - TM-1-1500-335-23_731
GLOSSARY CONT. - TM-1-1500-335-23_732
GLOSSARY CONT. - TM-1-1500-335-23_733
GLOSSARY CONT. - TM-1-1500-335-23_734
GLOSSARY CONT. - TM-1-1500-335-23_735
GLOSSARY CONT. - TM-1-1500-335-23_736
GLOSSARY CONT. - TM-1-1500-335-23_737
GLOSSARY CONT. - TM-1-1500-335-23_738
GLOSSARY CONT. - TM-1-1500-335-23_739
GLOSSARY CONT. - TM-1-1500-335-23_740
GLOSSARY CONT. - TM-1-1500-335-23_741
GLOSSARY CONT. - TM-1-1500-335-23_742
GLOSSARY CONT. - TM-1-1500-335-23_743
GLOSSARY CONT. - TM-1-1500-335-23_744
GLOSSARY CONT. - TM-1-1500-335-23_745
GLOSSARY CONT. - TM-1-1500-335-23_746
GLOSSARY CONT. - TM-1-1500-335-23_747
GLOSSARY CONT. - TM-1-1500-335-23_748
GLOSSARY CONT. - TM-1-1500-335-23_749
GLOSSARY CONT. - TM-1-1500-335-23_750
GLOSSARY CONT. - TM-1-1500-335-23_751
GLOSSARY CONT. - TM-1-1500-335-23_752
GLOSSARY CONT. - TM-1-1500-335-23_753
GLOSSARY CONT. - TM-1-1500-335-23_754
GLOSSARY CONT. - TM-1-1500-335-23_755
GLOSSARY CONT. - TM-1-1500-335-23_756
GLOSSARY CONT. - TM-1-1500-335-23_757
GLOSSARY CONT. - TM-1-1500-335-23_758
GLOSSARY CONT. - TM-1-1500-335-23_759
GLOSSARY CONT. - TM-1-1500-335-23_760
GLOSSARY CONT. - TM-1-1500-335-23_761
GLOSSARY CONT. - TM-1-1500-335-23_762
GLOSSARY CONT. - TM-1-1500-335-23_763
GLOSSARY CONT. - TM-1-1500-335-23_764
GLOSSARY CONT. - TM-1-1500-335-23_765
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